“[Trauma is] a direct personal experience of an event that involves actual or threatened death or serious injury, or other threat to one’s physical integrity; or witnessing an event that involves death, injury, or a threat to the physical integrity of another person; or learning about unexpected or violent death, serious harm, or threat of death or injury experienced by a family member or other close associate (Criterion A1). The person’s response to the event must involve intense fear, helplessness, or horror (or in children, the response must involve disorganized or agitated behavior) (Criterion A2).”
– Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000, p. 463.
“Trauma is an emotional response to a terrible event like an accident, rape or natural disaster. Immediately after the event, shock and denial are typical. Longer term reactions include unpredictable emotions, flashbacks, strained relationships and even physical symptoms like headaches or nausea. While these feelings are normal, some people have difficulty moving on with their lives. Psychologists can help these individuals find constructive ways of managing their emotions.”
-American Pscyhological Association. 2013. “Trauma.” http://www.apa.org/topics/trauma/. [Accessed 7 September 2013].
trau·ma/ˈtroumə/
Noun
- A deeply distressing or disturbing experience.
- Emotional shock following a stressful event or a physical injury, which may be associated with physical shock and sometimes leads to…
Synonyms
injury
Google, https://www.google.ca/search?site=&source=hp&q=definition+of+trauma&oq=definition+of+trau&gs_l=hp.1.0.0i20j0j0i20j0l2j0i10j0l2j0i10j0.2403.9416.0.14958.18.18.0.0.0.0.151.1721.15j3.18.0.crnk_timecombined…0…1.1.26.hp..0.18.1721.FmQbswCO6-g [Accessed 7 September 2013]
“The combination of post-migration stressors including the demands of acculturation, poor nutrition, lack of access to care, decreased support systems and a possible increase in care-giving responsibilities, coupled with continued tensions and upheaval in the country of origin are thought to exacerbate the already high levels of stress and risk of depression experienced by refugees.”
– Williams, Megan and Sandra Thompson. 2011. “The Use of Community-Based Interventions in Reducing Morbidity from the Psychological Impact of Conflict-Related Trauma Among Refugee Populations: A Systematic Review of the Literature.” Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health 13(4), p. 781.
“What is torture? In its simplest terms, torture is the infliction of severe physical or mental pain or suffering. An important feature of torture is that the torturer has complete physical control over the victim. A feeling of helplessness remains with the victim long after the torture episode is over. Pain and suffering are an integral part of torture, but the main purpose is not really pain and suffering but rather breaking of the will. Torture is directed towards instilling and reinforcing a sense of powerlessness and terror in victims and the societies in which they live. Torture is a purposeful, systematic activity – the deliberate infliction of pain by one person on another. This feature makes torture very different from trauma created in other circumstances such as a natural disaster… Some victims of torture will experience profound emotional reactions and psychological symptoms. The main psychiatric disorders associated with torture are post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, adjustment disorder, and anxiety disorders. However, while everyone who is tortured is affected by the experience, it is important to recognise that not everyone who has been tortured develops a diagnosable mental illness.”
– Immigration and Refugee Board. 2004. Training Manual on Victims of Torture. Ottawa: Refugee Protection Division, Professional Development Branch. http://www.irb-cisr.gc.ca/Eng/RefClaDem/Pages/GuideTorture.aspx.
“During the migration period, refugees often move between different countries and different refugee camps. By this time, they are typically separated from their families and friends, creating intense anxiety and depression as they realize all they have lost (Mollica 2006). Refugees’ lives remain in limbo until their legal challenges are sorted out. During this time, refugees must confront the losses in their life, as well as develop a new sense of hope for the future (Hunt 2004). They are simultaneously required to pass through the asylum-seeking process, which is intensely re-traumatizing (Quiroga 2004)…During the initial post-migration period, refugees are confronted by the loss of their culture—their identity, their habits and their place. Every action that used to be routine will require careful examination and consideration (White 2004). Culture shock will particularly affect those refugees who did not think about, intend, or prepare for exodus, and who were caught up in panic, hysteria or even adventure (Mollica 2006; Mollica 2000). When refugees learn the difficult realities about settlement services, their anxiety and feelings of exclusion from their host country greatly increases (George 2003). Nostalgia, isolation, depression, anxiety, guilt, anger and frustration are so severe that many refugees may want to go back to their country of origin even though they fear the violent consequences (Mollica 2000). These factors tend to increase psychological problems… A strengths perspective on mental illness serves to counter social constructions and advances the success of individuals with mental illness in society. It is closely tied to the concept of resiliency. The lives of mentally ill individuals are often filled with pain and suffering, yet one of their major strengths is their resiliency (George 2009). Refugees gain durability from the experiences they undergo before resettling (Gronseth 2006). As Harter (1996) suggests, overestimating one’s abilities (within reason) is associated with positive mental health. However, recognizing refugees’ internal strengths should not lead to underestimating the difficulties they continue to face in their new country. Nevertheless, it is important for social workers to realize the necessity of maximizing the resiliency power of each refugee.”
– George, Miriam. 2012. “Migration Traumatic Experiences and Refugee Distress: Implications for Social Work Practice.” Clinical Social Work Journal 40(4):429-437.
Beck, J. Gayle and Denise M. Sloan, ed. 2012. Oxford Handbook on Traumatic Stress Disorders. New York: Oxford University Press.
Harvard Program on Refugee Trauma. http://hprt-cambridge.org/research/publications/. [Accessed 7 September 2013].
Immigration and Refugee Board. 2004. Training Manual on Victims of Torture. Ottawa: Refugee Protection Division, Professional Development Branch. http://www.irb-cisr.gc.ca/Eng/RefClaDem/Pages/GuideTorture.aspx. [Accessed 7 September 2013]
Sandra L. Bloom, MD, “Trauma Theory, Abbreviated,” Community Works, 1999. http://www.dhs.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/587966/trauma_theory_abbreviated_sandra_bloom.pdf. [Accessed 7 September 2013]
Chairperson Guideline 8: Procedures With Respect to Vulnerable Persons Appearing Before the IRB, Guideline issued by the Chairperson pursuant to paragraph 159(1)(h) of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, Effective date: December 15, 2006 Amended: December 15, 2012. http://www.irb.gc.ca/Eng/BoaCom/references/pol/GuiDir/Pages/GuideDir08.aspx. [Accessed 7 September 2013]
Fazel M., Doll H., and Stein A. 2009. “A school-based mental health intervention for refugee children: an exploratory study.” Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 14(2): 297-309.
George, Miriam. 2010. “A Theoretical Understanding of Refugee Trauma.” Clinical Social Work Journal 38(4): 379-387.
George, Miriam. 2012. “Migration Traumatic Experiences and Refugee Distress: Implications for Social Work Practice.” Clinical Social Work Journal 40(4):429-437.
Gross, Corina Salis. 2004. “Struggling with Imaginaries of Trauma and Trust: The Refugee Experience in Switzerland.” Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry28(2): 151-167.
Haene, Lucia, Peter Rober, Peter Adriaenssens, KArine Verschueren. 2012. “Voices of Dialogue and Directivity in Family Therapy with Refugees: Evolving Ideas About Dialogical Refugee Care.” Family Process 51(3): 391-404.
Mann, C.M. and Fazil, Q. 2006. “Mental illness in asylum seekers and refugees.” Primary Care Mental Health 4(1): 57-66.
Masinda, Mambo. 2004. “Quality of Memory: Impact on Refugee Hearing Decisions.” Traumatology 10(2): 131-139.
Mollica, R.F. 2001. “The Trauma Story: A Phenomological Approach to the Traumatic Life Experiences of Refugee Survivors.” Psychiatry 64(1).
Mollica, R.F. 2006. Healing invisible wounds: Paths to hope and recovery in a violent world. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Books.
Price, Kathy. 1995. “Community Support for Survivors of Torture: A Manual.” Toronto: Canadian Centre for Victims of Torture.
Singer, Judy and Jenny Adams. 2011. “The Place of Complementary Therapies in an Integrated Model of Refugee Health Care: Counsellors’ and Refugee Clients’ Perspectives.” Journal of Refugee Studies 24(2): 351-375.
Stauffer, Sarah. 2008. “Trauma and Disorganized Attachment in Refugee Children: Integrating Theories and Exploring Treatment Options.” Refugee Survey Quarterly 27(4): 150-163.
Weine, Stevan et al. 2004. “Family Consequences of Refugee Trauma.” Family Process 43(2): 147-160.
Williams, Megan and Sandra Thompson. 2011. “The Use of Community-Based Interventions in Reducing Morbidity from the Psychological Impact of Conflict-Related Trauma Among Refugee Populations: A Systematic Review of the Literature.” Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health 13(4): 780-794.