This term signifies a divide which refers to a time prior to the airplane hijackings/attacks which occurred on September 11, 2001, in the United States (pre 9/11) as well as a period of time after this event (post 9/11) which forever changed the course of American life. The four separate, but corresponding, attacks killed 2, 819 Americans. Most casualties occurred at the World Trade Centre in New York City, while others occurred at the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia as well as in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. The attacks were believed to be perpetrated by the anti- American terrorist organization “al-Qaida” (Falkenrath, R.A. (2004). The 9/11 commission report. International Security, 29(3), 170-190. Retrieved on February 20, 2014, from http://muse.jhu.edu.ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/journals/international_security/v029/29.3falkenrath.html
The first definition of this term outlines that “pre 9/11 and post 9/11” is used to draw a distinction in time between in regards to the significant changes that the post 9/11 era had on border security practice (as well as military practice) in the period following the events of 9/11 (Jones, R. (2011). Border security, 9/11 and the enclosure of civilisation. The Geographical Journal, 177(3), 213-217. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4959.2011.00416.x). The post 9/11 period yields much stricter border control practices implemented in many countries (such as the United States and Canada) as a result of the attacks. Post 9/11, in the context of boarder control, is also marked by a shift towards surveillance of movement and risk management as well as a shift towards intelligence-led policing (MacIntosh, C. (2012). Insecure refugees: The narrowing of asylum-seeker rights to freedom of movement and claims determination post 9/11 in Canada. Review of Constitutional studies, 16(2), 181. Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE|A307414172&v=2.1&u=rpu_main&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=90f061ccfbc7410ad9d3cc767171ea1f).
Another definition refers to “pre 9/11 and post 9/11” as a time where foreign policies and legislature was “too lax” or lenient (pre 9/11 phase), and a time where immigration policies began to be extremely tightened, controlled, and securitized in the name of national security (post 9/11 phase) (Adelman, H. (2002). Canadian borders and immigration post 9/11. International Migration Review, 36(1), 15-28. doi: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2002.tb00066.x). The phase after 9/11 demonstrated severe limitations in movement for citizens, but especially stricter limitations in movement for immigrants, refugees, and asylum-seekers seen the perpetrators of 9/11 were foreignerswho were able gain status in the United States (MacIntosh, C. (2012). Insecure refugees: The narrowing of asylum-seeker rights to freedom of movement and claims determination post 9/11 in Canada. Review of Constitutional studies, 16(2), 181. Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE|A307414172&v=2.1&u=rpu_main&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=90f061ccfbc7410ad9d3cc767171ea1f).
The third definition, while acknowledging that this shift in time resulted in significant changes in boarder security and immigration, also makes takes into account that “pre 9/11 and post 9/11″is a shift in time, marked by the attack on September 11, which changed the lives of citizens, in a sense that most people were now in great danger and fear for their lives (in the post 9/11 period) Where as many had little or no fears regarding security in the pre 9/11 period, much of that changed in the post 9/11 period where many citizens (Canadian citizens in the context of this source) acknowledged that their lives changed in a sense that they were in a state of terror, and in fear for their lives (Boucher, J. (2012). The cost of bandwagoning: Canada-us defence and security relations after 9/11. International Journal, 67(4), 895. Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE|A320589646&v=2.1&u=rpu_main&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=06d5aed2a3b73c4c77fa4bb3fe675618).
Another way that scholars distinguish between the “pre 9/11 and post 9/11” time period is by signifying the “post 9/11” phase as a time where fundamental human rights are placed of second importance, or are sometimes altogether abandoned, in the name of national security. Fundamental human rights, such as freedom of movement, were not always respected, or were otherwise ignored, in the period following after 9/11, where as this was not as big of an issue prior to the attack (Dunne, T. (2007). ‘The rules of the game are changing’: Fundamental human rights in crisis after 9/11. International Politics, 44(2/3), 269-286. Retrieved February 20 2014, from http://ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/docview/203111862?accountid=13631).
The term “pre 9/11 and post 9/11” is used to signify a time of low military budgeting, in the pre 9/11 era, and a high increase in most countries’ military budgeting in the time following the 9/11 attacks. The fact that military budgets were increased for most countries, and mostly for the purpose of border control, (such as purchasing of sniffing dogs, increasing military personnel, etc.) signifies that the post 9/11 period phase in time is marked by fear of security threats, particularly for the borders, which may be used as an entry point into the country (Boucher, J. (2012). The cost of bandwagoning: Canada-us defence and security relations after 9/11. International Journal, 67(4), 895. Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE|A320589646&v=2.1&u=rpu_main&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=06d5aed2a3b73c4c77fa4bb3fe675618).
The term “pre 9/11 and post 9/11” is used for the purpose of distinguishing between the shift toward stronger boarder regulations in the post 9/11 period. In the pre 9/11, both Americans and Canadians were easily able to integrate their economies through the fluid movement of goods and people through the boarder, whereas in the post 9/11 phase there were significantly long delays at border points for both goods and people traveling (Adelman, H. (2002). Canadian borders and immigration post 9/11. International Migration Review, 36(1), 15-28. doi: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2002.tb00066.x) As well, it was proven that the post 9/11 period signified a time where there was much control placed on movement for individuals attempting to enter and exit the country (Rygiel, K. (2012). Governing mobility and rights to movement post 9/11: Managing irregular and refugee migration through detention. Review of Constitutional Studies, 16(2), 211. Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE|A307414173&v=2.1&u=rpu_main&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=24d636e17fc0ea997b15ba5d8e022ae7). It was very evident that the time after 9/11 (post 9/11 era) marked a significant shift between a previously relaxed border security and a tightly-controlled and rigid border security in the post 9/11 period.
An example of how “pre 9/11 and post 9/11” signified a distinction between more lenient foreign policies and much more regulated and strict policies can be marked by the enactment of Bill C-11, The Balanced Refugee Reform Act (whose purpose is to protect nation security by accelerating the processing of asylum claims), Bill C-31, Protecting Canada’s Immigration System Act (whose purpose is to protect national security by regulating clandestine migration and preventing human smuggling), and Bill C-36, The Canadian Anti-Terrorist Act (which extends the government’s power and imposes criminal sanctions for those found guilty of terrorism.) (MacIntosh, C. (2012). Insecure refugees: The narrowing of asylum-seeker rights to freedom of movement and claims determination post 9/11 in Canada. Review of Constitutional studies, 16(2), 181. Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE|A307414172&v=2.1&u=rpu_main&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=90f061ccfbc7410ad9d3cc767171ea1f)
An example of how the “pre and post 9/11” era showed a shift in public opinion can be clearly seen in an “Ekos” poll published in the early days after 9/11- on September 27, 2001. This poll found that 77 percent of Canadians believed that their lives are deeply and permanently changed by the terrorist attacks. This shift in public attitudes towards fear and terror shows that the events marked a divide between lifestyles, in the sense that in the post 9/11 phase there was fear and anxiety among citizens that such an event may occur again. This also showed that public views on security, as well as changes in lifestyle, were not only pertinent to the United States where the attack occurred- rather it was a concern for many citizens in many countries (considering the fact that the survey respondents were Canadians and not Americans). (Boucher, J. (2012). The cost of bandwagoning: Canada-us defence and security relations after 9/11. International Journal, 67(4), 895. Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE|A320589646&v=2.1&u=rpu_main&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=06d5aed2a3b73c4c77fa4bb3fe675618)
Kostakopoulou, D. (2008). How to do things with security post 9/11. Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, 28(2), 317-342. doi: 10.1093/ojls/gqn010
LaFeber, W. (2002). The post September 11 debate over empire, globalization, and fragmentation. Political Science Quarterly, 117(1), 1-17. Retrieved February 20 2014, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/798091
Murphy, C. (2007). “Securitizing” Canadian policing: A new policing paradigm for the post 9/11 security state? The Canadian Journal of Sociology, 32(4), 449-475. Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20460665
Whatford, N., & George, B. (2007). Regulation of transport security post 9/11. Security Journal, 20(3), 158-170. Retrieved February 20 2014, from http://ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/docview/230359303?accountid=13631
Other Related Terms:
Other related terms are “War on terror” “Age of terror” and “Securitization”.
Case Law:
Canada (Justice) v. Khadr, 2008. Omar Ahmed Khadr was a Canadian citizen who was detained by U.S. Forces in 2002 and was sent to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba where he faced first degree murder charges for killing a U.S. troop in Afghanistan. The court ruled that Khadr’s Section 7 Charter rights were violated by the Canadian and U.S. government (Canada (Justice) v. Khadr, 2008 SCC 28, [2008] 2 RCS 125, Retrieved on April 05, 2014, from http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/scc/doc/2008/2008scc28/2008scc28.html?searchUrlHash=AAAAAQAKciB2LiBraGFkcgAAAAAB)
R. v. Khawaja, 2012. Mohammad Momin Khawaja was the first Canadian citizen to be charged and found guilty under the Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act. Khawaja was found guilty of engaging in terrorist activities, as outlined by Section 83.18 of the Criminal Code. The court found that this section provides a way for terrorism to be prosecuted and prevented and does not violate Khawaja’s Section 7 of the Charter. He is now serving a life sentence (R. V. Khawaja, 2012 SCC 69, [2012] 3 S.C.R., Retrieved on April 05, 2014, from http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/scc/doc/2012/2012scc69/2012scc69.html?searchUrlHash=AAAAAQARdGVycm9yaXNtIGtoYXdhamEAAAAAAQ)
Adelman, H. (2002). Canadian borders and immigration post 9/11. International Migration Review, 36(1), 15-28. doi: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2002.tb00066.x
Boucher, J. (2012). The cost of bandwagoning: Canada-us defence and security relations after 9/11. International Journal, 67(4), 895. Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE|A320589646&v=2.1&u=rpu_main&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=06d5aed2a3b73c4c77fa4bb3fe675618
Canada (Justice) v. Khadr, 2008 SCC 28, [2008] 2 RCS 125, Retrieved on April 05, 2014 from http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/scc/doc/2008/2008scc28/2008scc28.html?searchUrlHash=AAAAAQAKciB2LiBraGFkcgAAAAAB
Dunne, T. (2007). ‘The rules of the game are changing’: Fundamental human rights in crisis after 9/11. International Politics, 44(2/3), 269-286. Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/docview/203111862?accountid=13631
Falkenrath, R.A. (2004). The 9/11 commission report. International Security, 29(3), 170-190. Retrieved on February 20, 2014, from http://muse.jhu.edu.ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/journals/international_security/v029/29.3falkenrath.html
Jones, R. (2011). Border security, 9/11 and the enclosure of civilisation. The Geographical Journal, 177(3), 213-217. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4959.2011.00416.x
MacIntosh, C. (2012). Insecure refugees: The narrowing of asylum-seeker rights to freedom of movement and claims determination post 9/11 in Canada. Review of Constitutional studies, 16(2), 181. Retrieved February 20, 2014 from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE|A307414172&v=2.1&u=rpu_main&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=90f061ccfbc7410ad9d3cc767171ea1f
R. V. Khawaja, 2012 SCC 69, [2012] 3 S.C.R., Retrieved on April 05, 2014 from http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/scc/doc/2012/2012scc69/2012scc69.html?searchUrlHash=AAAAAQARdGVycm9yaXNtIGtoYXdhamEAAAAAAQ
Rygiel, K. (2012). Governing mobility and rights to movement post 9/11: Managing irregular and refugee migration through detention. Review of Constitutional Studies, 16(2), 211. Retrieved February 20 2014, from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE|A307414173&v=2.1&u=rpu_main&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=24d636e17fc0ea997b15ba5d8e022ae7
Wondolleck, Gray & Bryan, (2003). Us versus them: How identities and characterizations influence conflict. Environmental Practice, 5(3), 207-213. Retrieved February 20, 2014, from http://ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/docview/215462359?accountid=13631